9-5 FONIO African Organic Agriculture Training Manual A Resource Manual for Trainers Draft Version 2.0 March 2013 Ready for fi eld testing African Organic Agriculture Training Manual CONTENTS 1. Introduction 1 2. Selection of suitable cultivars 3 3. Proper fi eld establishment 4 4. Improving soil fertility 5 5. Proper water management 6 6. Proper weed management 7 7. Effective pest and disease management 8 8. Reducing harvest and post-harvest losses 8 9. Marketing and organic certifi cation of fonio 11 10. Further reading 12 IMPRINT Publisher: FiBL, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Switzerland, www.fi bl.org Collaboration: > IFOAM, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, Germany, www.ifoam.org > NOGAMU, National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda, www.nogamu.org.ug > FENAB, Senegal > OPPAZ, Organic Producers and Processors Association of Zambia, www.oppaz.org.zm Author: Olugbenga Oluseyi Adeoluwa (University of Ibadan, Nigeria) and Gilles Weidmann (FiBL) Reviewer: Jean-François Cruz (Cirad) (post-harvest manage- ment and processing) Illustrator: Okudi Deogratius Gerard, Uganda Draft version 2.0, March 2013. This is an interim version. Comments and recom- mendations for improvement are welcome. This manual chapter can be reproduced without permission. All materials resulting from the African Organic Agriculture Training Manual project are available free of charge in the internet under www.organic-africa.net The production of this manual was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture with the goal to promote organic and sustainable farming in Africa. All the information contained in this manual has been compiled by the authors to the best of their knowledge. Reasonable efforts have been made by the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture and their partners to publish reliable data and information. The authors, the editors and the pub- lishers cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of the materials. Neither the authors, nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by the training manual and its tools. The manual’s fi ndings, conclusions and recom- mendations are those of the authors, and do not necessarily refl ect positions or policies of either Foundation. Please cite this publication as follows: FiBL (2013): African Organic Agriculture Training Manual. Version 2.0 July 2013. Edited by Gilles Weidmann and Lukas Kilcher. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, Frick ISBN 978-3-03736-197-9 African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 1 9-5 GROWING FONIO THE ORGANIC WAY Learning targets for farmers: > Know that fonio is suited for hot and dry conditions and thus can contribute to sustainable food security in such climates. > Understand that increases in fonio yields are possible with improved mana- gement of soil, crop and harvest. > Realise potential improvements through mechanisation of post-harvest pro- cessing. 1. Introduction White Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as ‘acha’ or ‘fundi’, is a minor cereal crop cultivated throughout West Africa from Senegal to Lake Chad. It is a common staple food as well as a prestige food and a gourmet item. The plants, reaching a size of 30 to 80 cm, produce tiny grains of 1.0 to 1.5 mm length which have excel- lent nutritional quality and are also a valuable, easily digested feed for poultry. The straw and the chaff are excellent fodder and are often sold in West African markets. The straw is also chopped and mixed with clay to build walls of houses, or used as fuel for cooking or to produce ash for potash. Fonio is a source of food for several million people when other food resour- ces are scarce, making an essential contribution to food security. Due to its short growth cycle of 70 to 150 days, farmers can sow the crop two times within one year, if conditions allow. If farmers grow cultivars with a very short cycle, fonio enables them to cover the critical season before the major food crops are har- vested. Fonio grows on very poor soils, where other cereals do not succeed. But its low yielding capacity and very laborious traditional processing have hindered its development. DAM IMAXIME CUM IPISTIA TEMPORERIAM EVENTUR SE FLYER 5: FONIO� � SET OF TRANSPARENCIES African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 2 Discussion: Assess- ment of the fonio production situation Inquire about the status of fonio production in the area, using the following questions: > Is fonio a common crop in the area? > Under what conditions is it commonly grown? > What are the average yields? > Which attention is given to the crop? > Which are considered to be the main constraints to good fonio yields? TYPICAL PRODUCTION SITUATION Fonio production faces several challenges: > Poor soil fertility: One reason for low yields, which have been attributed to the crop, is that fonio is mostly grown on poor sandy soils that are considered too infertile for other cereals. Fonio has a very low nutrient demand, and therefore generally occupies the last place in rotation systems before a fallow of several years. Provision of nutrients and water is usually not thought to be relevant by the farmers. For soil preparation many farmers burn the fallow vegetation and spread the ashes. This procedure destroys soil organic matter in the topsoil, which is essential for soil fertility and soil moisture conservation. > Use of low-yielding cultivars: Fonio cultivation relies mainly on traditional landraces. Thus, farmers use seeds from the previous harvest to grow the new crop. Traditional landraces are often less productive than the few exist- ing improved varieties, despite their good adaptation to marginal growing conditions. > Inadequate weeding: Due to fonio’s ability to establish quickly, farmers nor- mally do not weed the fi elds. This leaves the crop to compete with weeds, which can reduce its ability to yield well. > Pests and diseases: Susceptibility of fonio to pests and diseases is low. Ne- vertheless, some fungi can affect the growing crop. Grain moulds are also common. The parasitic Striga weed, particularly Striga rowlandi which is known to occur abundantly in West Africa, can cause serious damage to the crop. Insect pests can also cause signifi cant losses; birds feed on the matur- ing grains. > High harvest losses and laborious post-harvest management: Lodging and shattering of seeds result in high grain losses. Lodging of fonio is common because of the fragile nature of its shoots. Shattering of seeds in mature crops is another problem. In delayed harvests grain losses can reach 25 per- cent. Threshing and husking are a labour-intensive task and are diffi cult to perform. They are traditionally performed manually by beating or trampling on the fonio sheaves, often on unpaved fl at ground or rocks, which results in contamination of the product with sand. > Low socio-economic appraisal: Fonio has a low ranking in regional cereal pro- duction due to its low yields and rather low commercial value. This makes it less competitive than other cereals like pearl millet, sorghum or maize and hampers its improvement. So far, plant breeders have contributed little to provide improved cultivars. IMPROVED PRODUCTION SITUATION Discussion on potential improve- ments in fonio production Discuss with the farmers potential improvements in fonio production based on prevailing challenges: > How can crop growth and yields be improved? > How can harvest and post-harvest losses be reduced? > How can processing be simplifi ed? African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 3 Despite all the constraints, total fonio production in West Africa has in- creased steadily since 1980, mainly due to an increase of the harvested area. However, considerable potential for improvement remains in both production and processing. Further improvement depends on better cultivars, improved crop management, and less laborious processing methods. 2. Selection of suitable cultivars For good results farmers should select the most suitable cultivars, as this deter- mines, to some extent, the yield that can be obtained from the crop. Cultivars should be selected according to the length of the local growing period, their re- sistance to lodging, pests, diseases and shattering, as well as their yield potential. In the last years, fi rst improved cultivars have been released in West African countries, including fi ve cultivars in the Benin Republic with an early to medium growing period and good yield potentials. Further breeding efforts and proper plant seed selection may result in improved stability of tillers to prevent lodging, provide reduced photoperiod-sensitivity and larger grain size. Factors to consider when selecting suitable cultivars for cultivation include: > Length of the growing period: Fonio plants reach maturity and are ready for harvesting from 8 weeks upwards after sowing. Ideally, the growing period of the selected cultivars must match the length of the rainy season. Usually cultivars with a short to medium growing period are preferred, as they can still perform during rainfall. > Adaptability: Selected cultivars should not only grow well under local grow- ing conditions, but be easy to process, also when processing is done mechani- cally, and satisfy consumers’ preferences. > Resistance to lodging and shattering: Lodging is a challenge in fonio culti- vation due to the fragility of the plant shoots. It therefore is imperative for farmers to grow cultivars that are resistant to lodging, in order to avoid yield losses. It is also necessary to select cultivars that are, as much as possible, resistant to shattering. > Resistance to pests and diseases: Ideally the selected cultivars would exhibit high resistance to common pests and diseases like the leaf spot disease, rust, or birds. SELECTION OF SUITABLE CULTIVARS Discussion on cultivar selection Invite the farmers to share their experiences with fonio cultivars, using the following questions: > Which criteria do you consider when selecting seeds to grow fonio? > Have you tried out diffe- rent local cultivars? > Have you made any ex- periences with improved fonio cultivars? African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 4 Yield potential: Low yields are one of the major challenges to fonio produc- tion. It is therefore necessary to select improved cultivars, where they are avail- able, that have the ability to give higher yields. To fulfi ll their potential such culti- vars depend on improved soil fertility and management. 3. Proper fi eld establishment Fonio is grown in traditional rain-fed farming systems in areas with annual rain- fall of 700 to 1000 mm. In areas with very low rainfall the crop is grown in valleys that benefi t from run-off water. From sea level up to an altitude of 1500 metres white fonio is cultivated, while in upland regions mostly black fonio is grown. Although considered to be quite drought resistant, fonio is not as drought re- sistant as pearl millet. However, the fast-maturing landraces, due to their short growing period, are suited to areas with short and unreliable rains. Fonio grows on various soil conditions including poor, shallow, sandy, degraded or acidic soils, but heavy and saline soils are less suitable. Fonio is usually sown at the beginning of the rainy season. Instead of prepar- ing the soil the traditional way by burning the fallow vegetation and ploughing, the remaining vegetation may be slashed and left as a mulch on the soil surface to protect it from erosion and drying out. Then reduced soil cultivation may be applied, for example by ripping the soil in rows only. Although not common, such a method may have its advantages. For germination fonio only requires a super- fi cially loosened soil, because of its small seeds. Loose topsoil with a fi ne tilth provides good conditions for germination. Sowing is commonly done by broadcasting. For this, the small seeds are best mixed with an equal quantity of sand to best spread the seed. After sowing the seeds are covered with soil by a light hoeing or brushing with tree branches. The seed rates range from 10 to 30 kg per hectare, depending on soil fertility and growing conditions. Seed rates from 50 to 70 kg per hectare result in denser stands and reducing competition from weeds. Broadcasting can result in bunch- es of fonio plants, which then develop poorly. Although not common yet in fonio production, sowing in rows provides a number of advantages: it requires less seeds, results in more uniform stands and – when sown at a row distance of 15 to 20 cm – allows mechanical weeding with a hoe or a tine or blade weeder, if the soil is not covered by dry mulch. PROPER FIELD ESTABLISHMENT Discussion on the most appropriate sowing technique Ask the farmers, whether any of them have experi- ence sowing fonio in rows. Discuss possible advan- tages and inconveniences of sowing in rows com- pared to broadcasting. Which requirements must sowing equipment fulfi ll? African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 5 4. Improving soil fertility Fonio is seen as a very hardy crop that grows well on poor soils. Due to this claim farmers usually plant fonio on very poor soils without considering any efforts to improve soil fertility or fertilise the crop. Although little is known about the nutrient requirements of fonio, the crop will most probably give better yields in a fertile soil. Soil fertility management fi rst serves an entire production system or an en- tire crop rotation, and only in second priority an individual crop. So, even if fo- nio does not require high soil fertility, improvement in soil fertility will improve growth of all crops. Soil fertility management should start from preserving the soil from erosion and degradation, and include practices that feed the soil with organic matter. Practices that can contribute to soil fertility improvement in fonio production: a) Soil conservation. When the soil is left bare, it is exposed to wind and water erosion, and to high sun intensities. Therefore, where wind is frequent, wind- breaking hedges around the fi elds are necessary to prevent wind erosion and reduce the otherwise high evaporation and evapotranspiration of water from crops and soil. They also help prevent strong winds carrying away the small seeds after sowing. Unlike ploughing, where the entire soil surface is returned and exposed to sun and wind, soil disturbance is minimized in reduced soil cultivation, which essentially contributes to conservation of soil water. Especially in case of ploughing, sowing should be done immediately after soil preparation. On sloping land, land preparation must be done across the slope to minimise run-off water with supporting suitable structures which stabilise and hold the soil, and trap erosion. b) Crop rotation and intercropping. Fonio is often grown in rotation with oth- er cereals like sorghum and millet. In some areas it is grown after rain-fed rice as a short-cycle crop before another (cereal) crop is sown in the same season. Continuous cultivation of cereals, particularly with poor soil fertil- ity management practices, decreases soil fertility and encourages build-up of soil-borne diseases, pests and weeds. To improve soil fertility fonio should be grown in a planned rotation with nitrogen-fi xing leguminous crops like beans, cowpeas, groundnuts or leguminous green manure crops and other SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT Discussion on soil fertility management Ask the farmers to des- cribe, how they manage fertility of their soils. > Do they prevent soil ero- sion by wind and water? If so, how? > Do they grow crops that also feed the soil? If so, which ones? Discuss, how they do it. > Do they recycle plant materials and animal manures? Which chal- lenges do they meet with this? > Are any manures or compost applied? If yes, which challenges do they meet with compost production? African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 6 Discussion on integration of improved soil fertility management practices Discuss with the farmers, how practices of improved soil fertility management can be introduced into their farming systems. appropriate crops. Besides fi xing nitrogen in the soil for subsequent crops, legumes interrupt the lifecycles of soil-borne pests and diseases, which are hosted by grass crops. Conversely, growing fonio before peanuts, cowpeas or sesame can reduce development of Macrophomina phaseolina, a fungus that causes charcoal rot on these and many other plant species. c) Addition of organic materials. Application of compost, animal manure or bio- mass from green manure crops to the soil provides essential organic mate- rial for maintanence of soil fertility. While green plant materials and animal manures provide food for soil organisms and nutrients to plants, compost mainly improves soil properties like soil structure and soil water holding ca- pacity. Planned cultivation of leguminous green manures like mucuna during the off-season, if suffi cient water is available, protects the soil from erosion, fi xes nitrogen from the air, and supplies great amounts of biomass for soil organic matter management. d) Recycling crop residues on the fi eld. In order to minimise loss of nutrients from the fi eld, crop residues should be returned to the piece of land where they were harvested. If the residues are fed to livestock, the dung of the ani- mals should be returned to the fi elds and mixed into the soil, or compost- ed together with plant materials to improve the quality before application. Burning of the crop residues is not recommended, as this results in loss of valuable organic matter. e) Use of mineral fertilizers. In principle application of selected mineral P and K fertilizers is allowed in organic farming, whereas the use of mineral N fer- tilizers is not allowed. Use of such fertilizers should only be the last option in soil fertility management and is only recommended in case of heavy defi - ciency. Use of commercial fertilizers may hardly be economic in fonio produc- tion. Nevertheless, before using mineral fertilizers certifi ed organic farmers should check prevailing regulations. 5. Proper water management Fonio is well adapted to annual rainfall of 700 to 1000 mm. However, towards the Sahelian zone annual rainfall drops lower. Effective management of water is therefore essential in traditional rain-fed fonio production and is now becoming even more important due to the increasing occurrence and severity of droughts. WATER MANAGEMENT Assessment of water availability Assess the situation regar- ding the availability of wa- ter for fonio production: > Are there water stress problems in fonio pro- duction? > Are the farmers growing any early maturing culti- vars to limit water needs and escape droughts? > What are the farm- ers currently doing to harvest water in the fi eld and make it more available? African Organic Agriculture Training Manual Module 09 Crops: Unit 5 Fonio 7 Recommended practices to improve water use effi ciency in fonio production in- clude: > Early planting in the season. Early sowing can be advisable in order to op- timise the use of rainwater, particulla
