Larva
For identification of the third-instar larva, see White and Elson-Harris (1994).
Adult
C. capitata belongs to a group of eight or nine species placed in the subgenus Ceratitis s.s. (De Meyer, 2000). The adults are readily recognisable by external morphology, particularly thoracic and wing patterns (White and Elson-Harris, 1994). The males have a characteristically shaped pair of lower orbital setae, the apex black and diamond-shaped. For a complete description see De Meyer (2000), who also provides a key for the separation of similar species.
C. capitata can be monitored by traps baited with male lures. As in other tested species belonging to the subgenus Ceratitis, males are attracted to trimedlure and terpinyl acetate, but not methyl eugenol. Ceralure is a new potent and persistent attractant for C. capitata (Avery et al., 1994). The responses to baits of 16 Ceratitis species were tabulated by Hancock (1987). Trimedlure (t-butyl-4(or 5)-chloro-2-methyl cyclohexane carboxylate) is the most widely used lure for C. capitata. The history of trimedlure development and the problems of isolating the best of the eight possible isomers were discussed by Cunningham (1989a). The lure is usually placed on a cottonwool wick suspended in the middle of a plastic trap that has small openings at both ends. Suitable traps were described by White and Elson-Harris (1994). Lure can either be mixed with an insecticide or a piece of paper dipped in dichlorvos can be placed in the trap. Traps are usually placed in fruit trees at a height of about 2 m above ground and should be emptied regularly as it is possible to catch hundreds of flies in a single trap left for just a few days, although the lure may remain effective for a few weeks. A detailed study of trap position effects was carried out by Israely et al. (1997). A review of the biological aspects of male lures was presented by Cunningham (1989a) and the use of lures was described more fully by Drew (1982). A trapping system used to monitor for possible introductions of C. capitata into New Zealand has been described by Somerfield (1989). The possibility of the development of pheromone-based trapping systems was discussed by Landolt and Heath (1996). Trapping efficiency may also be enhanced by the use of fluorescent colours, particularly light green (Epsky et al., 1996).
Related invasive species
- Ceratitis capitata
Related Farm Practice
- Identification
- Relationships
- Hosts
Related location
- Zimbabwe
- Kenya
C. capitata is a highly invasive species. It has a high dispersive ability, a very large host range and a tolerance of both natural and cultivated habitats over a comparatively wide temperature range. It has a high economic impact, affecting production, control costs and market access. It has successfully established in many parts of the world, often as a result of multiple introductions (Malacrida et al., 2007). Frequent incursions into North America require expensive eradication treatments and many countries maintain extensive monitoring networks.
C. capitata is a highly polyphagous species and its pattern of host relationships from region to region appears to relate largely to what fruits are available;examples were given by White and Elson-Harris (1994). Coffea spp. are especially heavily attacked, although the attack on coffee does not impact on this crop as only the fleshy part of the fruit, which is discarded, is utilised by the larvae. However, the quality may be affected and in many areas coffee crops appear to act as an important reservoir from which other crops may be attacked. In some areas wild hosts are of importance, for example, box thorn, Lycium europaeum, is an important overwintering host in North Africa (Cayol, 1996). Several wild hosts in Zimbabwe were recorded by Hancock (1987) and Copeland et al. (2002) recorded 51 wild host species in Kenya. Lists of wild and cultivated hosts were provided by Liquido et al. (1991), Hancock et al. (2000) and De Meyer et al. (2002). Reports in the literature of Hylocereus undatus as a host of C. capitata are not supported by field evidence (Zlotina, 2015).
In addition to the hosts listed, C. capitata has also been found on Artabotrys monteiroae, Berberis holstii, Bourreria petiolaris, Carissa longiflora, Carissa tetramera, Chrysophyllum carpussum, Coccinia microphylla, Corallocarpus ellipticus, Diospyros pubescens, Drypetes gerrardii, Elaeodendron schweinfurthianum, Grewia trichocarpa, Harrisonoia abyssinica, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus, Ludia mauritiana, Lycium campanulatum, Manilkara sulcata, Mimusops kirkii, Minusops kummel, Mimusops zeheri, Peponium mackenii, Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata, Polysphaeria parvifolia, Richardella campechiana, Salacia elegans, Santalum freyinetianum, Vepris nobilis, V. simplicifolia and V. trichocarpa.