Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
Michelina Ruocco and Massimo Giorgini, CNR, Italy; Bernard Blum, IBMA, Switzerland; Jurgen Kohl, PRI, The
Netherlands; Philippe Nicot, INRA France
Food Quality and Safety
6TH FRAMEWORK
PROGRAMME
© Vasileios P. Vasileiadis, CNR, Italy
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
Maize in European agriculture
Maize is one of the most popular and widely grown crops in the world. In terms of production
(FAOSTAT, 2008), the main European producing countries are: France (16 million tonnes) followed
by Ukraine (1.15 million tonnes), Italy (1 million tonnes) and Hungary (0.9 million tonnes). Together
the countries of Eastern Europe accounted for a total production of 42 million tonnes, which corre-
sponds to 35% of total production. However, in terms of yield (Hg/Ha) Western Europe and South-
ern Europe have the best performances (see Figure 1).
During the past eight years there has been a positive trend in maize yields, while the harvested area has
remained substantially the same (see Figure 2).
Pesticides and herbicides are widely used by maize growers. More sustainable production methods are
readily available but, unfortunately, are not widely disseminated. We strongly believe that biological
controls and improved cultural practices (rotations) can be integrated into IPM strategies to reduce
pesticide use dramatically.
Figure 1: Maize production in Europe
Figure 2: European maize production over the past eight years
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
Above: Fusarium ear rot infection. ©
Elzbieta Czembor, IHAR, Poland.
Short overview of the main threats in maize production
Many diseases and pests can affect maize during the growing season.
Diseases more frequent during production
> Fusarium ear rot: caused by several species of Fusa-
rium spp. and is the most common fungal disease on
corn ears. Typically, symptoms of fusarium ear rots are
a white to pink or salmon-coloured mould, beginning
anywhere on the ear or scattered throughout, but it
rarely involves the whole ear. Infected kernels are often
tan or brown, or have white streaks. These fungi can
produce mycotoxins.
> Fusarium stalk rot: caused by several species of
Fusarium spp. Stalk rot is generally thought of as a prob-
lem of senescing plants. A higher incidence of stalk rot is
common when conditions such as water stress and foliar
diseases occur. The earliest symptoms of stalk rot are
wilted plants in the field. Infected plants take on a gray-
ish green hue and then turn tan. Outward symptoms of
the disease are indefinite discoloured patches on the
lower internodes
> Crazy top: caused by Sclerophthora macrospora and
Sclerospora spp. The disease is most prevalent in warm
and humid regions. The expression of symptoms is
greatly affected by plant age, the species of the pathogen
and the environment. Usually, there is chlorotic striping
of leaves and leaf sheaths, and dwarfing. Downy mildew becomes conspicuous after development of a
‘downy growth’ on or under the leaf surface. This condition is the result of conidia formation, which
commonly occurs early in the morning.
> Corn smut: caused by Ustilago maydis. The plant may be infected at any time in the early stages of
its development but gradually grows less susceptible after the formation of the ear. Any part of the
plant above the ground can be invaded, although it is more common on the ears. Hot, dry seasons are
favourable for the growth of the fungus. The boil is composed of a white, smooth covering enclosing a
great mass, sometimes four or five inches in diameter, of black, greasy or powdery spores. After the
spores mature, the covering becomes dry and brittle, breaks open and allows the black powdery con-
tents to fall out.
> Head smut: caused by Sphacelotheca reiliana. It is responsible for a variety of symptoms and both
tassel and cobs may be partially or completely smutted. This disease is, in general, rare.
> Rhizoctonia root rot and stalk rot: caused by Rhizoctonia solani. The lesion is brown to blackish
brown, sinks twoards the centre and is produced on the crown and prop root. The infected plant eas-
ily lodges or falls down during light winds or rain.
> Common rust: caused by Puccinia sorghi. The disease occurs severely under cool, wet conditions.
> Pythium root rot: caused by Pythium graminicola. It causes wilting of the whole plant at the yel-
low ripe stage. During the onset, the roots turn brown and then the whole plant withers around the
yellow ripe stage. Typically, the ear of an infected plant hangs down.
>
Pythium stalk rot: caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. This disease occurs sporadically. The sur-
face of the culm just above the ground at first discolours to a brown shade and is water-soaked. The rot
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
extends rapidly to the inside of the culm. Brown and spindle-shaped lesions are sometimes produced
on the surface of the culm. The culm softens and rots and the whole plant twists and falls down.
Available biocontrol solutions (commercially used biocontrol agents)
Pathogen Micro-BCA Macro-BCA Semiochemical Natural product
Fusarium spp. Trichoderma
harzianum
Puccinia sorghi
Pythium
graminicola
and Pythium
aphanidermatum
Trichoderma
harzianum
Rhizoctonia
solani Trichoderma
harzianum
Sclerophthora
macrospora and
Sclerospora spp
Sphacelotheca
reiliana
Ustilago maydis
Insect pests frequently damaging maize in Europe
> European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae): young larvae feed
on tassels, whorl and leaf sheath tissue and also mine midribs; they also feed on silk, kernels, and cobs,
or enter the stalk. Older larvae burrow into the stalk, the base of the corn ear, or into the ear cob or
kernels. The presence of one to two larvae within a corn stalk is tolerable, but the presence of any lar-
vae within the ear of sweetcorn is considered intolerable. Heavily bored stalks of grain corn suffer
from lodging, reducing the capacity for machine harvesting. Boring by corn borers allows several fungi
to affect corn plants, contributing to increase the level of associated mycotoxins that are dangerous for
humans and livestock.
> Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides Lefèbvre (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): damage
caused to corn is very similar to that produced by the European corn borer.
> Cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): larvae feed on the
leaves, tassels, ears (on the kernels) and the whorl. In general, this pest is less injurious than the corn
borers.
> Cutworms, Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): Cutworms are sporadic early-season pests that
can reduce plant populations in a field. Larger larvae chop off seedlings at the soil plane, whereas small
larvae climb plants and chew small holes in the leaves.
> Western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae):
both adults and larvae feed on the plant, but larval root feeding is the main cause of damage. Larval
feeding may destroy individual roots or root nodes, and reduce plant growth, stability and yield.
Severe root injury may result in lodging of corn plants, making harvesting more difficult. The adults
are responsible for the damage of leaves, corn silk, pollen and corn cob, causing additional losses, par-
ticularly in maize production for grain, seed or sweetcorn.
> Wireworms, Agriotes spp. (Coleoptera: Elateridae): early in the season wireworms may destroy
germinating seeds and cut off seedlings at the soil line. Wireworms also attack young plants, resulting
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
in weakened plants or a reduced stand. Damage is most likely to occur where corn is planted into a
field formerly used for pasture or for growing weedy alfalfa.
Biocontrol solutions for insect pests of maize in Europe
Insect pest Macroorganism Microorganism Genetically
modified
cultivars Semiochemical Other
solutions
European
corn borer,
Ostrinia
nubilalis
Parasitoid
wasps:
Trichogramma
spp.
Bacillus
thuringiensis
var. kurstaki
and var.
aizawaii
(bacterium)
Bt maize
producing Cry
proteins from
B. thuringiensis
Sex phero-
mone:
- monitoring of
males
Semiochemi-
cals:
- monitoring of
females
Trap plants
around corn
field
Sex phero-
mone:
- mating dis-
ruption
Cotton
bollworm,
Helicoverpa
armigera Parasitoid
wasps: Tricho-
gramma spp.
Bacillus
thuringiensis
var. kurstaki
and var.
aizawaii
(bacterium)
Bt maize
producing Cry
proteins from
B. thuringiensis
Sex phero-
mone:
- monitoring of
males
Nucleo-
polyhedrovirus
Mediter-
ranean corn
borer,
Sesamia
non-
agrioides Bacillus
thuringiensis
var. kurstaki
and var.
aizawaii
(bacterium)
Bt maize
producing Cry
proteins from
B. thuringiensis
Sex phero-
mone:
- monitoring of
males
Sex phero-
mone:
- mating dis-
ruption
Cutworms,
Agrotis spp. Sex phero-
mone:
- monitoring of
males
Western
corn
rootworm,
Diabrotica
virgifera
virgifera Entomo-
pathogenic
nematodes
Entomo-
pathogenic
fungi
Bt maize
producing Cry
proteins from
B. thuringiensis
Semiochemical-
based insecti-
cide baits
Key Available In development
SWOT analysis
> Strengths: biocontrol products are usually user and environment friendly.
> Weaknesses: used alone, their efficacy is considered lower than competitive chemicals. They need to
be used at a lower level of infestation (threshold).
> Opportunities: easier registration.
> Threats: high cost and complicated to use.
References:
> Meissle et al. Pests, pesticide use and alternative options in European maize production: current
status and future prospects. J. Appl. Entomol. 134 (2010) 357–375.
> ENDURE Maize Case Study leaflets 1, 2 and 3.
Biocontrol in Selected Crops
Number 3: Maize
Recommendations for biocontrol in maize
Research and development
Technical institutes should look deeper into integrating biological and chemical
control.
> Weed control is a big gap to be explored, both on the plantation row and in the
control of invasive weeds (glyphosate resistant).
> Set up ‘new application thresholds’ adapted to the use of biologicals.
Policy makers and regulation
> Reinforce the trend towards zero pesticide residues.
Education, training, communication
> Involve farmers’ organisations in the promotion of alternative protection sys-
tems.
> Demonstration plots, especially in reputable maize fields.
> Training courses.
Industry and distribution
> Development of more user friendly biological products.
> Make available application ‘kits’, including decision support tools.
> Active promotion (demonstrations, lectures, training etc).
For further information please contact:
Michelina Ruocco, Italian National Research Council (CNR), Italy
Telephone: +39 081 25 39 337
Email: miruocco@unina.it
About ENDURE
ENDURE is the European Network for the Durable Exploitation of Crop Protection Strategies.
ENDURE is a Network of Excellence (NoE) with two key objectives: restructuring European
research and development on the use of plant protection products, and establishing ENDURE
as a world leader in the development and implementation of sustainable pest control strategies
through:
> Building a lasting crop protection research community
> Providing end-users with a broader range of short-term solutions
> Developing a holistic approach to sustainable pest management
> Taking stock of and informing plant protection policy changes.
Eighteen organisations in 10 European countries are committed to ENDURE for four years
(2007-2010), with financial support from the European Commission’s Sixth Framework
Programme, priority 5: Food Quality and Security.
Website and ENDURE Information Centre:
www.endure-network.eu
This publication was funded by EU grant (Project number: 031499), under the Sixth
Framework Programme, and is catalogued as Biocontrol in Selected Crops Number 3: Maize,
published in November, 2010.
© Photos, from top to bottom: A.S. Walker; INRA, C. Slagmulder; JKI, B. Hommel; Agroscope ART; SZIE; INRA, N.
Bertrand; Vitropic; INRA, F. Carreras ; JKI, B. Hommel; INRA, J. Weber; INRA, J.F. Picard; JKI, B. Hommel
