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By Michelle L. Thomas, NCAT Agriculture InternOctober 2001

CURRENT T OPIC

D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE

P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

Introduction

Dung beetles play a small but remarkable role in the pasture ecosystem. \

They feed on manure, use

it to provide housing and food for their young, and improve nutrient cyc\

ling, soil structure, and

forage growth in the meantime. Dung beetles are important enough in man\

ure and nutrient

recycling that they well deserve the pasture manager’s attention.

Dung beetles belong to the zoological order Coleoptera and family Scarab\

aeidae . Of the more than

90 species in the U.S., less than a dozen are significant in dung buria\

l. Three behavioral groups of

the beetles are relevant to manure recycling. Probably the best-known g\

roup are the ‘tumble bugs’

or ‘rollers’ (e.g., the species Canthon pilularius). In the behavior characteristic of this group, a male-

female pair roll a ball of dung (brood ball) away from a manure pile i\

n order to bury it. Dung

beetles generally work in pairs.

Another group are the ‘tunnelers.’ An example of this group is Onthophagus gazella, which typically

bury the dung balls under the manure pat or close to the edge. Piles of\

soil next to the dung pat are

indicators of tunneler-type dung beetle activity. Collectively, tunnele\

rs and tumblers are classified

as ‘nesters’ because of their behavior in preparing a home for the\

ir young. The third group of

beetles that use dung are the ‘dwellers’. Most dwellers belong to\

the subfamily Aphodiidae . They

live within the manure pat, engage in little to no digging, and generall\

y do not form brood balls.

Appearance and Behavior

Dung beetles range in size from 2mm (0.1 inch) to 60 mm (2.5 inches)\

. The front legs usually have

serrated edges, used for powerful digging. Colors range from black to b\

rown to red, and can have

a metallic appearance. Males often have one or two horns. Scarabs are \

distinguished from other

beetles by the appearance of their antennae, which are segmented and end\

with a plate-like oval

club of three to seven expansible leaves. These lobes create a large su\

rface area for detecting odors.

Look for these specialized antennae with a magnifying glass.

Adult dung beetles are drawn to manure by odor. Many are species-specif\

ic

 they prefer a certain

type of animal manure. They will fly up to 10 miles in search of just t\

he right dung, and can attack

dung pats within seconds after they drop. Some species will even hitch \

a ride near the tails of

animals in anticipation of a deposit. Once drawn by the odor, the adult\

s use the liquid contents of

the manure for their nourishment. Dr. Patricia Richardson, Research Ass\

ociate at the University of

Texas, memorably refers to this as a “dung slurpie.”

If they are a nesting species, the pair then goes to work on forming a b\

rood ball out of the dung,

which contains a large amount of roughage. The pair continue to work as\

a team to bury the ball.



PAGE 2//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

The female, which typically has shorter, thicker legs, digs while the ma\

le helps haul the soil from

the tunnel. The female lays one egg in each ball. She then seals the b\

rood ball, seals the tunnel,

and begins the process again if she is of a species that lays several eg\

gs.

Source: Fincher, G.T. and P.B. Morgan. 1990. Flies affecting livestoc\

k and poultry. p. 152.

In: Habeck, et al. (eds.) Classical Biological Control in the Souther\

n United States. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin No. 355. November 1990.

In about a week, the egg hatches within the brood ball. The larva feast\

s on the interior contents of

the ball, eating about 40

−50%, and sealing the interior with its own excrement along the way. Thi\

s



PAGE 3

//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

leads to a totally enclosed, protected environment. The larva does not \

have to compete with others

for a food source, and is also protected from predators outside the broo\

d ball. If the integrity of the

brood ball is destroyed, the larva will die. Under ideal environmental \

conditions, the larva will

pupate at an average of three weeks. A young adult beetle emerges, eats\

its way out of the brood

ball, forms a new tunnel to crawl out through, and goes on its way in se\

arch of fresh manure. The

newly emerged beetles will breed two weeks later, with a complete genera\

tion taking six weeks

under ideal environmental conditions (1).

Soil moisture level is crucial to many species, as breeding and dung bur\

ial are decreased in dry

periods. During dry weather, the young adults emerge from the brood bal\

l but remain within the

soil, waiting for rain. As with most beetles, activity decreases during\

the coldest months. The

larvae remain viable deep within the soil, waiting for environmental cue\

s such as rainfall and

temperature to prompt their emergence.

Other dung beetle species prefer an arid climate. Euoniticellus intermedius, imported from Australia,

is found in south, central, and west Texas where it is especially import\

ant ecologically, being active

during dry weather when other native beetles are not (2).

Importing New Species

Dr. Truman Fincher (retired) directed the dung beetle research program\

at the USDA-ARS Food

Animal Protection Research Laboratory at College Station, Texas, until 1\

998. His research was

directed at importing and introducing dung beetle species that would com\

plement and not

compete with native populations, in order help balance U.S. pasture ecos\

ystems. According to

Fincher, the beetles in the U.S. have not been able to keep up with our \

increased livestock

production and manure waste. Increased fertilizer use and higher-produc\

ing forage varieties have

boosted forage yields, increasing in turn the animal carrying capacity p\

er unit of pasture. Also,

widespread use of insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and anthelmintic\

s may be responsible for

reducing dung beetle populations (3).

If pastures throughout the variety of climates, soil types, and other ph\

ysical conditions in the U.S.

supported Dr. Fincher’s ideal complex of dung beetles, manure burial \

would be ongoing 24 hours a

day. Though it may take up to 120 different species of dung beetles to \

accomplish this goal, the

behavioral diversity among species makes it a feasible goal. Some are n\

ighttime flyers, some fly

during the day, and some prefer older manure to very fresh. If several \

species are working

together, some may bury the brood ball close to the manure pat, some far\

ther away, some shallow,

and some deep (4).

Benefits to the Pasture System

Dung beetles’ benefits to livestock and the pasture environment just \

might outweigh their

somewhat disgusting choice of food. For example, manure is the breeding\

ground and incubator

for horn flies ( Haematobia irritans) and face flies (Musca autumnalis) , two economically important

pests of cattle . A single manure pat can generate 60

−80 horn fly adults if protected from insect

predators and competitors such as dung beetles. As dung beetles feed, t\

hey compete with the fly

larvae for food and physically damage the flies’ eggs. Fly populatio\

ns have been shown to

decrease significantly in areas with dung beetle activity. Dr. George B\

ornemissza found that 95%

fewer horn flies emerged from cowpats attacked by Onthophagus gazella, than from pats where

beetles were excluded (2).



PAGE 4//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

The Afro-Asian dung beetle,

Onthophagus gazella, has been successfully

established in the southern tier of states, from California to South Car\

olina. The male is shown at left, the female at right.

Source: Anon. 1997. Heroes of the pasture. (Interview with G.T. Finc\

her.) Acres U.S.A. December. p. 26.

Dung beetles are also reported to be effective biological control agents\

for gastrointestinal parasites

of livestock. The eggs of most gastrointestinal parasites pass out in t\

he feces of the host. The eggs

then hatch into free-living larvae and develop into the infective stage.\

They then migrate onto

grass, where they can be ingested by grazing animals, and complete their\

life cycle within the

animal. If the manure/egg incubator is removed by beetles, the eggs per\

ish and the life cycle of the

parasite is broken.

On a pasture-management level, dung pat removal is beneficial for forage\

availability. Most

ruminants will not graze closely to their own species’ manure pats. \

Research has shown that the

forage is palatable, but avoided because of the dung pile. Consequently\

, cattle manure deposits

can make from 5% to 10% per acre per year unavailable. By completely an\

d quickly removing the

manure, dung beetles can significantly enhance grazing efficiency.

The tunneling behavior of dung beetles increases the soil’s capacity \

to absorb and hold water, and

their dung-handling activities enhance soil nutrient cycling. An adequa\

te population and mix of

species can remove a complete dung pile from the surface within 24 hours\

. As the adult dung

beetles use the liquid component for nourishment and the roughage for th\

e brood balls, the dung

pat quickly disappears. If left on the surface, up to 80% of manure nit\

rogen is lost through

volatilization; by quickly incorporating manure into the soil, dung beet\

les make more of this

nitrogen available for plant use. The larvae use only 40

−50% of the brood ball before pupating,

leaving behind the remainder of this nutrient-rich organic matter for so\

il microbes, fungi, and

bacteria to use in creating humus (5).

Management

Dung beetle larvae are susceptible to some insecticides used for fly and\

internal parasite control for

cattle. Ivermectin (Ivomec and Doramectin) injectable, used at the re\

commended dose, reduced

survival of the young of two species for 1 to 2 weeks in a study done by\

Dr. Fincher. Ivermectin

pour-on reduced survival of the larvae for 1 to 3 weeks. Most detriment\

al was Ivermectin

administered as a bolus, with effects lasting up to 20 weeks. Discontin\

uing the use of this type of

insecticide will help increase your population of dung beetles.



PAGE 5

//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

Specific chemicals aside, one must consider that any product designed to\

harm, limit, or kill would

have some impact on the ecosystem in general, and should be used judicio\

usly. Backrubbers, ear

tags, and the occasional use of insecticide dusts and sprays are alternatives that have little o\

r no

effect on dung beetles (2). Another option is to treat cattle during \

the coolest months of the year, as

the beetles and larvae are inactive at those times. Better yet, before \

treating your animals for

internal parasites, take a fecal sample to your veterinarian. An egg co\

unt can help determine

parasite load and whether the symptoms you may be seeing in the form of \

low gains, weight loss,

unthriftiness, etc., are truly being caused by parasites.

Controlled grazing systems increase dung beetle populations and varietie\

s by concentrating the

manure in smaller areas, thus reducing the time beetles must spend in se\

arch of food. Grazing

cycles that match the reproductive cycle of the beetles are favorable, a\

s cattle return to grazing cells

at the same time that new adults are emerging from the soil. For more i\

nformation on controlled

grazing systems, refer to the ATTRA publications Rotational Grazing and Sustainable Pasture

Management.

Watch the length of time it takes for the manure pats to disappear in yo\

ur pasture. If they remain

intact for more than a few days, chances are your dung beetle population\

is low to non-existent.

Look for hole formation in the surface of the manure pats. Many types o\

f beetle and other insects

also help to desiccate the pats. Management is the key to increasing th\

e number and variety of

dung beetles and other beneficial insects.


Dung beetles are just one small part of the pasture ecosystem, but too i\

mportant to ignore. To

summarize the dung beetle benefits highlighted by Dr. Fincher:

• Increased pasture yields resulting from the incorporation of organic mat\

ter into the soil

with an increase in soil friability, aeration, and water holding capacit\

y

• Reduction of other insect pest populations that breed in animal feces

• Prevention of pasture surface pollution

• Reduction of animal diseases by removing contaminated feces from pasture\

surfaces

• Return to the soil of nutrients that would otherwise be tied up in fecal\

deposits and un-

available to pasture grasses

• Increased effective grazing areas of pastures covered by feces

• Reduced nitrogen loss in livestock feces



PAGE 6//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

On a Personal Note…

My interest in this research area was sparked by observations made durin\

g our local grazing

group’s pasture walks, held monthly in the Northwest Arkansas area. \

While walking through the

pastures, you have to carefully watch your step to avoid those proverbia\

l ‘pats.’ As the warm

spring days arrived, we noticed holes on top of the manure pats, and beg\

an to investigate further.

Seeing various small beetles, spiders, flies, gnats, and other insects l\

ed to more investigation.

Some in the group were more investigative than others, using pocketknive\

s and sticks to plow into

the manure. We found dry, hard shells with holes on the outside, and tu\

nnels with moisture

underneath. Some of the shells were simply that—shells with hollow i\

nteriors. Many pats were

spread out, with only a bit of roughage left behind. Several had piles \

of soil next to the edge of the

pat. Having learned about dung beetles and their benefits from veterina\

rian and ATTRA Specialist

Dr. Ann Wells, the group had some ideas about what we were looking at. \

And as usual, we also

had more questions. My curiosity piqued, I began to research the subjec\

t during my summer

internship. I have since had the opportunity of watching the seasonal c\

hanges on the dung scene

from late spring, through summer, and into early fall.

Research in the scientific literature was also interesting, but I finall\

y turned to a few experts for the

benefit of their applied knowledge. Dr. Patricia Richardson has written\

several publications on this

topic, with a humorous style I admire. When I came across mention of a \

dung beetle ‘farm’ used at

a workshop in Texas, I decided to try to replicate it for myself. Dr. R\

ichardson very helpfully

provided construction details.

Next, I needed the ‘workhorse’ of all the tunneler dung beetles, t\

he

Onthophagus gazella. Again I

called on Dr. Richardson for advice on how to locate them near my home i\

n the Arkansas River

Valley. She suggested watching at dusk and at dawn, as they are nightti\

me flyers. For several

evenings and early mornings I followed her suggestions, to no avail. (\

I did see three beautiful

‘rainbow scarabs’ around a pat by flashlight late one evening.) \

Frustrated, I went to Plan B: I

scooped up an entire manure pat with the telltale sign of tunneler activ\

ity, a fresh soil mound, next

to it

 and bagged and freezed it. I dissected the pat the next afternoon, sort\

ing out beetles by size

and appearance into separate containers, and made a trip to the Universi\

ty of Arkansas

Entomology Museum, where Dr. Jeffrey Barnes identified my beetles for me\

. To my utter dismay

(devastation may be a better word), there were no Scarabs, or “true\

dung beetles.” Most of my

specimens were of the Histeridae family, which is another very beneficia\

l beetle, but not what I

was looking for. Finally I turned to Oklahoma cattleman Walt Davis, who\

graciously sent several

of the gazella beetles to me by mail.

I filled the “farm” with sandy soil from the river bottom, and put\

fresh cattle manure on top. The

looming challenge now was to distinguish the males from the females, in \

order to place two or

three pairs into the farm. With Dr. Richardson’s notes close at hand\

, I placed one beetle into a

white coffee cup for close viewing. The front legs were serrated as she\

described, and the antennae

had little lobes on the end. Males have two small horns that lie toward\

the back and are a little

difficult to see at first. The females have shorter, thicker legs than \

the males, and no horns. (I must

admit I have become quick at sex identification of these creatures, whic\

h is alarmingly rewarding.)

I placed two pairs into the farm and waited.

Within three days, we began to see tunnels forming. I added another pai\

r and the brood balls

became visible within a few more days. I cannot adequately describe my \

excitement. After two

weeks, at least 38 brood balls were present, indicating time to entice t\

he parents out of the nest. Dr.



PAGE 7

//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

Richardson suggested ‘starving’ them out for a few days, then luri\

ng them into a new, fresh pile of

manure. The process worked very well.

At this point, I am watching the brood balls for movement and hatching, \

approximately 4 weeks

after their burial. I have seen two larvae moving and eating, and hope \

they will consider the sheet

of Plexiglas an integral part of the brood ball for later pupation. The\

weather, however, will have

an effect since it is cooling off below 55 degrees Fahrenheit at night. \

This will slow their activity,

and, from my understanding, may even arrest their emergence until the wa\

rm spring evenings and

rainfall begin. Even so, this dung beetle farm can be used for presenta\

tions and educational

opportunities for several months and that is my intention.

One last note of excitement over this project: I located several dung be\

etles I believe to be gazellas

while cleaning the poultry pens at our county fair in September, after a\

long, much-needed rain.

Moisture is critical to their activity, and they showed up when and wher\

e I least expected! We

have since found these tunnelers on our own farm as well, and they are m\

ost welcome to stay as

long as they will.

Dung Beetle Life Cycle Viewing Chamber

You can easily build your own dung beetle farm for observation of burrow\

s, brood balls, larvae,

etc. This would make a great school or 4H project for the kids. The ch\

amber consists of two

plexiglass sides with a ½” space between them held in a wooden fra\

me, with a viewing area

(per side) of about 24” wide by 20” tall. Information provided \

by Dr. G. Truman Fincher via Dr.

Patricia Richardson.



PAGE 8//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

Lumber needed: (

use treated lumber)

Bottom: (2” x 4”) 31” long. Cut a “generous” 7/8”-\

wide, ½”-deep center groove down the entire

length of the board.

Sides: make 2—(2” x 2”) 21” long. Again, cut a “gener\

ous” 7/8”-wide, ½”-deep center groove the

entire length of the board. At the bottom end of each side piece, cut t\

he board to leave a ½”-deep,

7/8” wide tongue to fit into the groove in the bottom piece.

Braces: make 2—(2” x 4”) On the outside of each side piece i\

s a wedge-shaped brace about 4” tall,

glued to the side and screwed to the bottom.

Top: (1” x 2”) 20” long. Cut a “generous” 7/8”-wid\

e, ¼”-deep center groove the entire length of

the board. Make a 16”-long cut (the thickness of the saw blade) through the board, in the center of

the groove and the middle of the board’s length

 this is the air slit.

Plexiglass needed:

2 viewing sides: 3/16” thick, 25” wide by 21” tall

2 end strips: ½”-thick, ½” wide by 20.5” tall

1 bottom strip: ½” thick, ½” wide by 25” long

3 support circles (or squares, or triangles): ½” thick, about th\

e diameter of a quarter, to keep the

viewing sides from bowing in or out.

Glue all strips and circles to one of the plexiglass viewing sides. Pla\

ce one circle in the center,

about 16” from the bottom. Place the other two about 6” in from e\

ither side and 8” up from the

bottom.

When the chamber is assembled, drill a hole through each support circle \

(in through one plexiglass

side and out the other). Secure with bolts and nuts. Glue and screw w\

ood frame pieces into place.

Add sandy loam soil up to about 7” from the top, fresh cow manure (b\

ig blob piled in middle), and

two or three male/female pairs of adult dung beetles. Keep at warm temp\

erature (they like 85

degrees F). They should begin to burrow and make brood balls within a \

day or two. Add more

fresh manure as needed. Remove the adult dung beetles in a week to ten \

days (withhold fresh

manure for a while, then lure them into a bucket of fresh). Provide 14\

hours of light, 10 of dark-

ness.

References:

1) Richardson, Patricia Q. and R.H. (Dick) Richardson. 2000. Dung beetl\

es improve the soil community (Texas/Oklahoma). Ecological Restoration. Summer. Vol. 18, No. 2. \

p. 116 −117.

2) Knutson, Allen. 2000. Dung beetles–Biological control agents of hor\

n flies. Texas Biological Control News. Winter. Texas Agricultural Extension Service. The Texas A&M Uni\

versity System.

3) Habeck, D.H., F.D. Bennett, and J.H. Frank (eds.) November 1990. Cla\

ssical biological control in the southern United States. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin No. 355.

4) Fincher, G.T. 1981. The potential value of dung beetles in pasture eco\

systems. J. Georgia Entomol. Soc. Vol. 16. 1

st Supplement. p. 316 −333.



PAGE 9

//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

5) Richardson, Patricia Q. and R.H. (Dick) Richardson. September 1999. \

Factsheet: Dung beetles (Work for

free, love their work). p. 1 −3.

6) Behrens, Patricia W. 1994. Dung beetles: Beetlemania in action. Acres\

U.S.A., October. Vol. 24, No. 10. p. 10 −12

Another Source of Information:

Floate, Kevin. 2001. Lethbridge Research Centre. Agriculture and Agri\

-Food Canada Research

Branch. Accessed 6 June, 2001:

Biological Control of Insect Pests: Insects in Cattle Dung
http://res2.agr.ca/lethbridge/scitech/kdf/dungbugs-bousier_e.htm

The Electronic version of Dung Beetle Benefits in

the Pasture Ecosystem is located at:

HTML
www.attra.org/attra-pub/dungbeetle.html.

PDF
www.attra.org/attra-pub/PDF/dungbeetle.pdf

PAGE 10//D UNG B EETLE B ENEFITS IN THE P ASTURE E COSYSTEM

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