Organic Farming in the
Tropics and Subtropics
Exemplary Description of 20 Crops
Coffee
© Naturland e.V. – 1st edition 2000
These cultivation guidelines have been published by Naturland e.V. with the kind support of the
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ, German Agency for
Technical Cooperation) financed by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit
(BMZ, Federal Ministry for Development Cooperation). The cultivation recommendations at hand
for 20 crops of the tropics and subtropics being of significant importance for the world economy
were written by various authors.
Naturland would like mention the following authors and thank them for their contributions:
Franz Augstburger, Jörn Berger, Udo Censkowsky,
Petra Heid, Joachim Milz, Christine Streit.
The cultivation guidelines are available in English, Spanish and German for the following crops:
banana, brazil nut, cashew nut, cocoa, coconut, coffee,
cotton, hibiscus, macadamia, mango, papaya, peanut,
pepper, pineapple, sugar cane, sesame, tea, vanilla.
The cultivation guidelines for Bananas, Mangoes, Pineapples and Pepper were revised in 2001 for
the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) by Udo Censkowsky and
Friederike Höngen.
In 2002 two more guidelines, for rice and date palms, were published in English.
All the authors emphasize, that the cultivation recommendations at hand can just provide general
information. They do not substitute technical assistance to the farmers with regard to the location.
All indications, data and results of this cultivation guidelines have been compiled and cross-
checked most carefully by the authors. Yet mistakes with regard to the contents cannot be
precluded. The indicated legal regulations are based on the state of the year 1999 and are subject
to alterations in future. Consequently all information has to be given in exclusion of any obligation
or guarantee by Naturland e.V. or the authors. Both Naturland e.V. and authors therefore do not
accept any responsibility or liability.
Furthermore the authors kindly call upon for critical remarks, additions and other important
information to be forwarded to the address below. The cultivation guidelines will be updated
regularly by Naturland e.V.
Naturland e.V.
Kleinhaderner Weg 1
82166 Gräfelfing
Germany
phone: +49 - (0)89 - 898082-0
fax: +49 - (0)89 - 898082-90
e-mail: naturland@naturland.de
website: www.naturland.de
We pass our gratitude to Peter Brul of Agro Eco for his helpful comments on the manuscript. Our
best thanks are also devoted to all supporters of this publication, in particular Mrs Sybille
Groschupf who cleaned up the text from errors in strenuous detail work and did the attractive
layout.
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000
Index
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Botany ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Varieties and countries of origin ..................................................................... 1
1.3. Uses and contents ............................................................................................ 4
2. Aspects of plant cultivation ................................................................................ 4
2.1. Site requirements.............................................................................................. 5
2.2. Diversification strategies ................................................................................. 5
2.2.1. Crops of the upperstorey (shade) .................................................................... 5
2.2.2. Crops of the middle storey ............................................................................... 7
2.2.3. Crops of the understorey.................................................................................. 7
2.3. Supplying nutrients and organic fertilisation management ......................... 9
2.4. Biological methods of plant protection ........................................................ 10
2.5. Crop cultivation and maintenance ................................................................ 11
2.5.1. Establishment of new plantations .................................................................. 11
2.5.2. Nurturing young plants ................................................................................... 12
2.5.3. Cultivation measures...................................................................................... 12
2.5.4. Weed management........................................................................................ 13
2.5.5. Soil protection ................................................................................................ 13
2.6. Harvesting and post harvest treatment ........................................................ 14
2.6.1. Harvesting...................................................................................................... 14
2.6.2. Post harvest treatment ................................................................................... 14
3. Product specifications and quality requirements........................................... 15
3.1. Raw coffee ....................................................................................................... 15
3.1.1. Processing ..................................................................................................... 15
3.1.2. Quality requirements ...................................................................................... 18
3.1.3. Packaging and storage .................................................................................. 18
3.1.4. Ecological aspects of coffee processing and quality control .......................... 19
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 1
Organic Coffee Cultivation
1. Introduction
Coffee is the most important raw material traded throughout the world behind crude
oil, and has become the most important export article for the nations that grow it.
1.1. Botany
The coffee plant belongs to the family of rubiaceae. Coffea arabica as a bush,
Coffea canephora as a bush-like tree. The white, aromatic coffee blossom does not
depend on cross fertilisation. The ovaries develop into an oval fruit containing two
seeds, and needs 6-8 months to ripen. Ripe coffee cherries have a red or yellow,
sweet type of flesh; the actual coffee beans are contained within them, in a
membranous pellicle and thin, hard endocarp.
1.2. Varieties and countries of origin
Economically, the most important coffee varieties are Coffea arabica called
“Arabica” and Coffea canephora called “Robusta” (comp. following table). In
comparison with Arabica, 30 % higher yields are gained from Robusta, although the
price is around 30% lower. There are also other coffee varieties, and although these
play hardly any role in today’s coffee trade, they can be important locally (e.g..
Coffea maragohipe, which has similar site requirements as “Robusta”, and is
characterised by its extremely large coffee beans).
Organic coffee cultivation is of economic importance mainly in Mexico, Peru,
Guatemala, Bolivian and in the Dominican Republic. Until now, organic cultivation
has been of less importance in such regions as Costa Rica, Brazil, Columbia,
Venezuela, Indonesia, India, Ethiopia, Kenya and Mozambique. It is mostly organic
“Arabica” that is being cultivated. “Robusta” is currently barely available in certified
organic quality.
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 2
Variety characteristics Coffea arabica (Arabica) Coffea canephora (Robusta)
Share of world
production
ca. 70% ca. 30%
Site requirements High sites; fluctuations in
annual rainfall and
temperature
Low sites; steady high
temperatures and rainfall
Main growing areas Latin America, East Africa Asia, Africa
Caffeine content 0.6-1.5% 2.0-2.7%
Diseases/ pests Susceptible to the berry borer
and coffee rust
Resistant against the berry
borer and coffee rust
Successful attempts have been undertaken to scion graft Arabica varieties onto
Robusta rootstocks during the past few years. This method seems to be useful to
organic coffee cultivation, because Robusta has a more highly developed root
system, and is thereby very proficient at acquiring nutrients, and, apparently, also
has a higher resistance against pests.
The “modern” varieties currently in use, have all been bred for conventional coffee
cultivation (single-form resistances, good nutrient extraction and high yields).
These are of little import to organic coffee cultivation; in general, older local varieties
that are adapted to site conditions are used:
Local varieties
Arábica, Típica Criolla,
Very old, original variety with many local types. Well suited to high altitude sites with
dense, diversified shade. Grows tall, yet its branches are elastic, and can be bent
down to harvest. Easy to trim and cultivate. Is undemanding, does not alternate and
is resistant to drought. The variety produces large beans of a good quality.
Relatively susceptible to coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and brown spot
(Cercospora coffeicola). Very well-suited to extensive organic cultivation.
Bourbon
Old variety, from the Caribbean island Bourbon. Widely spread, suited to deep lying
sites with intensive shade. Grows tall, easy to trim, undemanding and alternates
little. Ripens earlier than Típica, has small beans of an acceptable quality.
Susceptible to coffee rust and berry borers (Hypothenemus hampei). Well-suited to
organic cultivation in lower regions.
Mundo Novo
Similar variety to Bourbon, bred in Brazil for monocultures. Can withstand high crop
densities, only suited to organic cultivation in lower regions under certain conditions.
In practically all of the traditional coffee cultivation areas, local varieties or sorts
have been selected that were very well adapted, until new strains of coffee diseases
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 3
and pests appeared, and which still are to some extent. The following represents a
few examples:
Examples of local selections:
Pache (Central America)
Local selection of Típica. Well-adapted to high sites and dense shade. Late
ripening, with large beans and excellent quality. Low yield.
Pluma Hidalgo (Mexico, Guatemala)
Excellently adapted to high sites above 1,200 m (cultivation also up to 1850 m). Not
alternating and very resistant. Low yield, yet very large beans of excellent quality.
New varieties
Caturra (South America)
Small plant with short internodes and thick, dark green leaves that has been
developed for monocultures. Well-suited to intensively cultivated organic
plantations. Needs more sun and more intensive trimming than the local varieties,
and produces a much higher yield. Coffee plantations only have a short life-span,
and must be renewed after 20 years. Beans are of a reasonable size and quality.
Catuai (South America)
Developed in Brazil für monocultures as a cross-selection between Caturra and
Mundo Novo. Plant is stronger in growth than Caturra, some lines produce red and
yellow cherries. Needs more sun and more intensive trimming than the local
varieties, yet produces a much higher yield. Suited under certain conditions to
intensively cultivated organic plantations. Beans are of a reasonable size and
quality.
Colombia (Columbia)
Developed for monoculture in Columbia, resistant against rost, consists of 12 lines,
and therefore not self-proliferating. Poorly developed root system, is demanding and
very productive. Unsuitable for shady organic cultivation systems. Large beans of
good quality. (In Costa Rica, a similar variety is called Costa Rica 95.)
Yapar 59 (Brazil)
Variety developed for monocultures which lack shade, resistant against rost. High
demand of nutrients, little shade tolerance, therefore not well-suited to organic
cultivation (in Mexico, variety is called Oro Azteca).
Catimor
Is a cross-selection between Caturra with a hybrid from Timor. Useful due to good
resistance against rost, even under dense shade. High demand of nutrients. Certain
Catimor lines have problems with organo-leptic quality.
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 4
Carnica (Mexico)
In Mexico, well-adapted to sites between 1000 m and 1400 m.. Good yields, even at
low temperatures, good resistance against rost, yet susceptible to Cercospora;
medium yields. Not alternating. Low quality.
1.3. Uses and contents
Coffee is used almost exclusively in the drinks industry, and is offered to consumers
as roasted beans, ground, and also as instant coffee. This also counts for coffee in
organic quality. In the most important consumer countries, roasted coffee is almost
always sold as a blend of different origins and qualities. Only gourmet coffees are
not blended, but are generally one single product. Espresso blends, for example,
contain much caffeine-rich Robusta coffee and strongly roasted, unwashed Arabica
coffee.
An important constituent of the coffee bean is caffeine. The free caffeine content in
a bean is dependant on the coffee type, variety, the site conditions and other
factors, and can be more than 2.5%.
2. Aspects of plant cultivation
Coffee originates from the subtropical forest eco-system of the Ethiopian high lands,
where it grows under the shade of a variety of trees in a summer rain region.
Traditional coffee cultivation, which today is practised predominantly by small and
medium sized farms, re-creates coffee’s original growing conditions on diversified
agroforestry systems. These are also the foundations of organic coffee cultivation,
which nevertheless differs slightly through its more intensive cultivation.
Coffee can, of course, also be produced in monocultures, with a high input of
additional substances. This mostly the case on plantations in Africa, Brazil,
Columbia and Costa Rica. They produce most of the conventional coffee.
In practice, though, organic coffee cultivation has proven that cultivation in
monocultures is hardy possible in economical and technical terms, and, in
ecological terms, is highly undesirable.
World-wide organic coffee cultivation is quite disparate, and been adapted to suit
the site conditions. Nevertheless, two types of systems can be differentiated:
• Extensive systems, with essentially closed nutrient cycles – that are
predominantly cultivated by indigenous farmers and smallholdings. (no import of
organic fertiliser.)
• Intensive systems, with nutrient imports, that are predominantly cultivated by
medium to large holdings. (import of organic fertiliser.)
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 5
2.1. Site requirements
Coffee plants prefer well-drained and airy soils. They can grow in shallow ground,
due to their network of surface roots. Humus-rich, lightly acidic soils are beneficial;
the best conditions are those to be found on virgin soils of volcanic origin.
The ideal temperature range for Arabica coffee plants lies between 18°C and 24º C.
At higher temperatures, bud formation and growth are stimulated, but the greater
proliferation of pests increases the risk of infection, and quality sinks. Coffee plants
are susceptible to frost, temperatures below 10º C inhibit growth. Robusta plants
can withstand higher temperatures, and are more resistant against infection.
The ideal amount of rainfall lies between 1500 mm and 1900 mm. Coffee plants
react positively to a drought period, that should nevertheless not be longer than 3
months. The rainfall should be evenly spread throughout the rest of the year.
Irregular rainfall causes uneven blossoms and fruit maturity
Coffee is a half-shade plant, that can only utilise around 1% of the sunlight (ideal is
around 1500 hours per year) photosynthetically. At leaf temperatures over 34º C,
assimilation is practically zero, meaning that the rate of photosynthesis of a shaded
plant is actually higher than that of a plant fully exposed to the sun.
As a rule: In lower regions Robusta and in higher regions Arábica. The limit is
variable, and lies around 600-900 m.
The berry borer and coffee rost pests are important indicators as to whether the
coffee variety is suited to the site conditions. An Arabica plantation at 600 m, which
is heavily infested by coffee rost and berry borer, despite sufficient shade, is an
indication that the variety is ill-suited to the site, and should, in time, be replaced
with Robusta.
2.2. Diversification strategies
2.2.1. Crops of the upperstorey (shade)
The most important functions of shading trees on coffee plantations are:
• Creation of large amounts of organic material and humus. Pumping up of
nutrients from the lower soil regions. Leguminous trees fix nitrogen, and palm
trees break down phosphorous compounds, making them available to plants.
• Protection of the coffee plants against too much sun, which then regulates the
intensity and rhythm of the plants’ photosynthesis. The alternation in yield is
thereby reduced, and the life-time of the plantation increased.
• Shade also has an immense influence on the quality of the coffee,
simultaneously, though, it also reduces the yield (fewer coffee plants per
surface unit).
• Reduction of weeds: When an optimum density of coffee and shading trees is
reached, tilling weeds is hardly necessary anymore.
II Special section: Organic Coffee cultivation
Naturland e.V. – 1
st
edition 2000 page 6
• Protection against soil erosion.
• A diversity of micro-climatic effects. By choosing the correct varieties and
cultivation method for the shading flora, the micro-climate can be influenced at
any point in time, which is of central importance to the regulation of pests.
• Fruit trees offer a diversification for the farmer’s diet and economic base.
• Precious woods can provide long-term increase in value of the site: along with
other varieties, they can provide wood for construction and fuel.
• More pleasant working temperatures on the plantation.
No figures can be offered for the optimum shadow density, as this depends on the
local site conditions and the state of the plantation. A rule of thumb says that the
shade should be around 50%.
The higher in altitude the coffee plot lies, the less the distances should be between
the coffee bushes and start of the shading roof (the distance is in an inversely
proportional ratio to sea level). At the upper growth limits for coffee plants, the
shading plants are therefore at around the same height as them.
Care should be taken to trim the shading plants synchronously to the coffee
blossoming (6-8 weeks before the blossom). Blossom formation can thereby be
assisted and synchronised.
The following examples of “successful” shading trees should only be used as a
guideline. Most important is taking varieties found at the site into consideration.
Variety Suitability Remarks
Inga spp.
(I.edulis,I.deniflora,I.
spectabilis and
others)
Very well suited to good sites
Requi
